23 THE RICHNESS OF BEING

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    HERE AND THERE iural History Museum in London, built into recesses along theu corridors or standiween glass cases of minerals and ostrich eggs and a turyor so of other productive clutter, are secret doors—at least secret in the sehat there isnothing about them to attract the visitor’s notice. Occasionally you might see someohthe distracted manner and iingly willful hair that mark the scholar emerge from ohe doors and hasten down a corridor, probably to disappear through another door a littlefurther on, but this is a relatively rare event. For the most part the doors stay shut, giving nohint that beyond them exists another—a parallel—Natural History Museum as vast as, and inmany ways more wonderful than, the ohe publiows and adores.

    The Natural History Museum tains some seventy million objects from every realm oflife and every er of the pla, with another huhousand or so added to thecolle each year, but it is really only behind the ses that you get a sense of what atreasure house this is. In cupboards and ets and long rooms full of close-packed shelvesare kept tens of thousands of pickled animals in bottles, millions of is pio squaresof card, drawers of shiny mollusks, bones of dinosaurs, skulls of early humans, endlessfolders of ly pressed plants. It is a little like wandering through Darwin’s brain. The spiritroom alone holds fifteen miles of shelving taining jar upon jar of animals preserved ihylated spirit.

    Back here are spes collected by Joseph Banks in Australia, Alexander von Humboldtin Amazonia, Darwin on the Beagle voyage, and much else that is either very rare orhistorically important or both. Many people would love to get their hands ohings. Afew actually have. In 1954 the museum acquired an outstanding ornithological colle fromthe estate of a devoted collector named Richard Meizhagen, author of Birds of Arabia,among other scholarly works. Meizhagen had been a faithful attendee of the museum foryears, ing almost daily to take notes for the produ of his books and monographs.

    When the crates arrived, the curators excitedly jimmied them open to see what they had bee and were surprised, to put it mildly, to discover that a very large number of spesbore the museum’s own labels. Mr. Meizhagen, it turned out, had been helping himself totheir colles for years. It also explained his habit of wearing a large overcoat even duringwarm weather.

    A few years later a charming ular in the mollusks department—“quite a distinguishedgentleman,” I was told—was caught iing valued seashells into the hollow legs of hisZimmer frame.

    “I don’t suppose there’s anything ihat somebody somewhere doesn’t covet,”

    Richard Fortey said with a thoughtful air as he gave me a tour of the beguiling world that isthe behind-the-ses part of the museum. We wahrough a fusion of departmentswhere people sat at large tables doing i, iigative things with arthropods and palmfronds and boxes of yellowed bones. Everywhere there was an air of unhurried thhness,of people being engaged in a gigantideavor that could never be pleted and mustn’t berushed. In 1967, I had read, the museum issued its report on the John Murray Expedition, anIndian O survey, forty-four years after the expedition had cluded. This is a worldwhere things move at their own pace, including a tiny lift Fortey and I shared with a scholarlylooking elderly man with whom Fortey chatted genially and familiarly as we proceededupwards at about the rate that sediments are laid down.

    When the maed, Fortey said to me: “That was a very nice chap named Normanwho’s spent forty-two years studying one species of plant, St. John’s wort. He retired in 1989,but he still es in every week.”

    “How do you spend forty-two years on one species of plant?” I asked.

    “It’s remarkable, isn’t it?” Fortey agreed. He thought for a moment. “He’s very thhapparently.” The lift door opeo reveal a bricked-over opening. Fortey lookedfounded. “That’s very strange,” he said. “That used to be Botany back there.” He puncheda button for another floor, and we found our way at length to Botany by means of backstaircases and discreet trespass through yet more departments where iigators toiledlovingly over once-living objects. And so it was that I was introduced to Len Ellis and thequiet world of bryophytes—mosses to the rest of us.

    When Emersoically hat mosses favor the north sides of trees (“The moss uponthe forest bark, ole-star when the night was dark”) he really meant lis, for in theeenth tury mosses and lis weren’t distinguished. True mosses aren’t actuallyfussy about where they grow, so they are no good as natural passes. In fact, mosses aren’tactually much good for anything. “Perhaps no great group of plants has so few uses,ercial or eic, as the mosses,” wrote Henry S. ard, perhaps just a touch sadly,in How to Know the Mosses and Liverworts, published in 1956 and still to be found on manylibrary shelves as almost the only attempt to popularize the subject.

    They are, however, prolific. Even with lis removed, bryophytes is a busy realm, withover ten thousand species tained within some seven hundred genera. The plump andstately Moss Flora of Britain and Ireland by A. J. E. Smith runs to seven hundred pages, andBritain and Ireland are by no means outstandingly mossy places. “The tropics are where youfind the variety,” Len Ellis told me. A quiet, spare man, he has been at the Natural HistoryMuseum for twenty-seven years and curator of the department since 1990. “You  go outinto a place like the rain forests of Malaysia and find new varieties with relative ease. I didthat myself not long ago. I looked down and there ecies that had never beenrecorded.”

    “So we don’t know how many species are still to be discovered?”

    “Oh, no. No idea.”

    You might not think there would be that many people in the world prepared to devotelifetimes to the study of something so inescapably low key, but in fact moss people number inthe hundreds and they feel very strongly about their subject. “Oh, yes,” Ellis told me, “themeetings  get very lively at times.”

    I asked him for an example of troversy.

    “Well, here’s one inflicted on us by one of your trymen,” he said, smiling lightly, andopened a hefty reference work taining illustrations of mosses whose most notablecharacteristic to the uninstructed eye was their uny similarity oo another. “That,” hesaid, tapping a moss, “used to be one genus, Drepanocladus. Now it’s been reanized intothree: Drepanocladus, Wamstorfia, and Hamatacoulis.”

    “And did that lead to blows?” I asked perhaps a touch hopefully.

    “Well, it made se made perfect sense. But it meant a lot of re of collesand it put all the books out of date for a time, so there was a bit of, you know, grumbling.”

    Mosses offer mysteries as well, he told me. One famous case—famous to moss peopleanyway—involved a retiring type called Hyophila stanfordensis, which was discovered on thecampus of Stanford Uy in California and later also found growing beside a path inwall, on the southwest tip of England, but has never been entered anywhere iween. How it came to exist in two suected locations is anybody’s guess. “It<bdi>9９liｂ?</bdi>’snow known as Hennediella stanfordensis,” Ellis said. “Another revision.”

    We houghtfully.

    When a new moss is found it must be pared with all other mosses to make sure that ithasn’t been recorded already. Then a formal description must be written and illustrationsprepared and the result published in a respectable journal. The whole process seldom takesless than six months. The tweh tury was not a great age for moss taxonomy. Much ofthe tury’s work was devoted to untangling the fusions and duplicatio behind bythe eenth tury.

    That was the golden age of moss colleg. (You may recall that Charles Lyell’s fatherwas a great moss man.) Oly named Englishman, Gee Hunt, hunted British mosses soassiduously that he probably tributed to the extin of several species. But it is thanksto such efforts that Len Ellis’s colle is one of the world’s most prehensive. All780,000 of his spes are pressed inte folded sheets of heavy paper, some very oldand covered with spidery Victorian script. Some, for all we knew, might have been in thehand of Robert Brown, the great Victorian botanist, unveiler of Brownian motion and thenucleus of cells, who founded and ran the museum’s botament for its first thirty-oneyears until his death in 1858. All the spes are kept in lustrous old mahogany ets sostrikingly fihat I remarked upon them.

    “Oh, those were Sir Joseph Banks’s, from his house in Soho Square,” Ellis said casually, asif identifying a ret purchase from Ikea. “He had them built to hold his spes from theEndeavour voyage.” He regarded the ets thoughtfully, as if for the first time in a longwhile. “I don’t knoe ended up with them in bryology,” he added.

    This was an amazing disclosure. Joseph Banks was England’s greatest botanist, and theEndeavour voyage—that is the one on which Captain Cook charted the 1769 transit of Venusand claimed Australia for the , among rather a lot else—was the greatest botanicalexpedition in history. Banks paid ￡10,000, about $1 million in today’s mohimself and a party of hers—a naturalist, a secretary, three artists, and four servants—ohree-year adventure around the world. Goodness knows what the bluff Captain ade of such a velvety and pampered assemblage, but he seems to have liked Banks wellenough and could not but admire his talents in botany—a feeling shared by posterity.

    Never before or since has a botanical party enjoyed greater triumphs. Partly it was becausethe voyage took in so many new or little-known places—Tierra del Fuego, Tahiti, NewZealand, Australia, New Guinea—but mostly it was because Banks was su astute andiive collector. Even when uo go ashore at Rio de Janeiro because of a quarantine,he sifted through a bale of fodder sent for the ship’s livestod made new discoveries.

    Nothing, it seems, escaped his notice. Altogether he brought back thirty thousand plantspes, including fourteen hundred not seen before—enough to increase by about aquarter the number of known plants in the world.

    But Banks’s grand cache was only part of the total haul in what was an almost absurdlyacquisitive age. Plant colleg in the eighteenth tury became a kind of iionalmania. Glory ah alike awaited those who could find new species, and botanists andadventurers went to the most incredible lengths to satisfy the world’s craving for horticulturaly. Thomas Nuttall, the man who he wisteria after Caspar Wistar, came toAmerica as an uneducated printer but discovered a passion for plants and walked halfwayacross the try and back again, colleg hundreds of growing things never seen before.

    John Fraser, for whom is he Fraser fir, spent years in the wilderness colleg onbehalf of Catherihe Great and emerged at length to find that Russia had a new czar whothought he was mad and refused to honor his tract. Fraser took everything to Chelsea,where he opened a nursery and made a handsome living selling rhododendrons, azaleas,magnolias, Virginia creepers, asters, and other ial exotica to a delighted English gentry.

    Huge sums could be made with the right finds. John Lyon, an amateur botanist, spent twohard and dangerous years colleg spes, but cleared almost $200,000 in today’smoney for his efforts. Many, however, just did it for the love of botany. Nuttall gave most ofwhat he found to the Liverpool Botanic Gardeually he became director of Harvard’sBotanic Garden and author of the encyclopediera of North Ameri Plants (which henot only wrote but alsely typeset).

    And that was just plants. There was also all the fauna of the new worlds—kangaroos, kiwis,ras, bobcats, mosquitoes, and other curious forms beyond imagining. The volume of lifeoh was seemingly infinite, as Jonathan Swift noted in some famous lines:

    So, naturalists observe, a fleaHath smaller fleas that on him prey;And these have smaller still to bite ’em;And so proceed ad infinitum.

    All this new information o be filed, ordered, and pared with what was known.

    The world was desperate for a workable system of classification. Fortuhere was a manin Sweden who stood ready to provide it.

    His name was Carl Linné (later ged, with permission, to the more aristocratiLinné), but he is remembered now by the Latinized form Carolus Linnaeus. He was born in1707 in the village of R?shult in southern Sweden, the son of a poor but ambitious Lutherancurate, and was such a sluggish student that his exasperated father apprenticed him (or, bysome ats, nearly apprenticed him) to a cobbler. Appalled at the prospect of spending alifetime banging tacks into leather, young Linné begged for another ce, which wasgranted, and he hereafter wavered from academic distin. He studied medie inSweden and Holland, though his passion became the natural world. In the early 1730s, still inhis twenties, he began to produce catalogues of the world’s plant and animal species, using asystem of his own devising, and gradually his fame grew.

    Rarely has a man been more fortable with his owness. He spent much of hisleisure time penning long and flattering portraits of himself, declaring that there had never“been a greater botanist or zoologist,” and that his system of classification was “the greatestachievement in the realm of sce.” Modestly he suggested that his gravestone should bearthe inscription Princeps Botani, “Prince of Botanists.” It was never wise to question hisgenerous self-assessments. Those who did so were apt to find they had weeds named afterthem.

    Linnaeus’s other striking quality was an <dfn></dfn>abiding—at times, one might say, a feverish—preoccupation with sex. He articularly struck by the similarity betweeain bivalvesand the female pudenda. To the parts of one species of clam he gave the names vulva, labia,pubes, anus, and hymen. He grouped plants by the nature of their reproductive ans andehem with an arrestingly anthropomorphic amorousness. His descriptions of flowersand their behavior are full of refereo “promiscuous intercourse,” “barren es,”

    and “the bridal bed.” In spring, he wrote i-quoted passage:

    Love es even to the plants. Males and females . . . hold their nuptials . . .

    showing by their sexual ans which are males, which females. The flowers’

    leaves serve as a bridal bed, which the Creator has so gloriously arranged, adorh suoble bed curtains, and perfumed with so many soft sts that thebridegroom with his bride might there celebrate their nuptials with so much thegreater solemnity. When the bed has thus been made ready, then is the time for thebridegroom to embrace his beloved bride and surrender himself to her.

    He named one genus of plants Clitoria. Not surprisingly, many people thought him strange.

    But his system of classification was irresistible. Before Linnaeus, plants were given hat were expansively descriptive. The on ground cherry was called Physalis amnoramosissime ramis angulosis glabris foliis deis. Linnaeus lopped it back to Physalisangulata, whiame it still uses. The plant world was equally disordered by insistenciesof naming. A botanist could not be sure ifRosa sylvestris alba cum rubore, folio glabro wasthe same plant that others called Rosa sylvestris inodora seu a. Linnaeus solved thepuzzlement by calling it simply Rosa a. To make these excisions useful and agreeable toall required much more than simply being decisive. It required an instinct—a genius, in fact—for spotting the salient qualities of a species.

    The Linnaean system is so well established that we  hardly imagine an alternative, butbefore Linnaeus, systems of classification were often highly whimsical. Animals might becategorized by whether they were wild or domesticated, terrestrial or aquatic, large or small,eveher they were thought handsome and noble or of no sequence. Buffedhis animals by their utility to man. Anatomical siderations barely came into it. Linnaeusmade it his life’s work to rectify this deficy by classifying all that was alive acc toits physical attributes. Taxonomy—which is to say the sce of classification—has neverlooked back.

    It all took time, of course. The first edition of his great Systema Naturae in 1735 was justfourteen pages long. But it grew and grew until by the twelfth edition—the last that Linnaeuswould live to see—it exteo three volumes and 2,300 pages. In the end he named orrecorded some 13,000 species of plant and animal. Other works were more prehensive—John Ray’s three-volume Histeneralis Plantarum in England, pleted a geionearlier, covered no fewer than 18,625 species of plants alo what Linnaeus had that noone else could touch were sistency, order, simplicity, and timeliness. Though his workdates from the 1730s, it didn’t bee widely known in England until the 1760s, just in timeto make Linnaeus a kind of father figure to British naturalists. Nowhere was his systemembraced with greater enthusiasm (which is why, for ohing, the Linnaean Society has itshome in London and not Sto).

    Linnaeus was not flawless. He made room for mythical beasts and “monstrous humans”

    whose descriptions he gullibly accepted from seamen and other imaginative travelers. Amongthese were a wild man, Homo ferus, who walked on all fours and had not yet mastered the artof speech, and Homo caudatus, “man with a tail.” But then it was, as we should not fet, analtogether more credulous age. Even the great Joseph Banks took a keen and believing iin a series of reported sightings of mermaids off the Scottish coast at the end of the eighteeury. For the most part, however, Linnaeus’s lapses were offset by sound and oftenbrilliant taxonomy. Among other aplishments, he saw that whales belonged with ice, and other on terrestrial animals in the order Quadrupedia (later ged toMammalia), whio one had done before.

    In the beginning, Linnaeus intended only to give each plant a genus name and a number—volvulus 1, volvulus 2,and so on—but soon realized that that was unsatisfactory andhit on the binomial arrahat remains at the heart of the system to this day. Theiiinally was to use the binomial system for everything—rocks, minerals, diseases,winds, whatever existed in nature. Not everyone embraced the system warmly. Many weredisturbed by its tendency toward indelicacy, which was slightly ironic as before Liheon names of many plants and animals had beeily vulgar. The dandelion was longpopularly known as the “pissabed” because of its supposed diuretic properties, and othernames in everyday use included mare’s fart, naked ladies, twitch-ballock, hound’s piss, openarse, and bum-towel. One or two of these earthy appellations may unwittingly survive inEnglish yet. The “maidenhair” in maidenhair moss, for instance, does not refer to the hair onthe maiden’s head. At all events, it had long beehat the natural sces would beappreciably dignified by a dose of classical renaming, so there was a certain dismay indisc that the self-appointed Prince of Botany had sprinkled his texts with suchdesignations asClitoria, Fornicata, andVulva.

    Over the years many of these were quietly dropped (though not all: the on slipperlimpet still answers on formal occasions to Crepidula fornicata) and many other refisintroduced as the needs of the natural sces grew more specialized. In particular the systemwas bolstered by the gradual introdu of additional hierarchies.Genus (pluralgenera) andspecies had been employed by naturalists for over a hundred years before Linnaeus, andorder, class, and family in their biological senses all came into use in the 1750s and 1760s.

    But phylum wasn’t ed until 1876 (by the Germa Haeckel), and family and orderwere treated as intergeable until early iweh tury. For a time zoologists usedfamily where botanists placed order, to the occasional fusion of nearly everyone.

    1Linnaeus had divided the animal world into six categories: mammals, reptiles, birds, fishes,is, and “vermes,” or worms, for everything that didn’t fit into the first five. From theoutset it was evident that putting lobsters and shrimp into the same category as worms wasunsatisfactory, and various new categories such as Mollusd Crustacea were created.

    Unfortuhese new classifications were not uniformly applied from nation to nation. Inan attempt to reestablish order, the British in 1842 proclaimed a new set of rules called theStridian Code, but the French saw this as highhanded, and the Société Zoologiquetered with its own flig code. Meanwhile, the Ameri Ornithological Society, forobscure reasons, decided to use the 1758 edition of Systema Naturae as the basis for all itsnaming, rather than the 1766 edition used elsewhere, which meant that many Ameri birdsspent the eenth tury logged in different genera from their avian cousins in Europe.

    Not until 1902, at an early meeting of the Iional gress of Zoology, did naturalistsbegin at last to shoirit of promise and adopt a universal code.

    Taxonomy is described sometimes as a sd sometimes as an art, but really it’s abattleground. Even today there is more disorder in the system than most people realize. Takethe category of the phylum, the division that describes the basic body plans of all anisms.

    A few phyla are generally well known, such as mollusks (the home of clams and snails),arthropods (is and crustas), and chordates (us and all other animals with a baeor protobae), though things then move swiftly in the dire of obscurity. Among thelatter we might list Gnathostomulida (marine worms), idaria (jellyfish, medusae,anemones, and corals), and the delicate Priapulida (or little “penis worms”). Familiar or not,these are elemental divisions. Yet there is surprisingly little agreement on hohylathere are ht to be. Most biologists fix the total at about thirty, but some opt for a numberin the low twenties, while Edward O. Wilson in The Diversity of Life puts the  asurprisingly robust eighty- depends on where you decide to make your divisions—whether you are a “lumper” or a “splitter,” as they say in the biological world.

    At the more workaday level of species, the possibilities for disagreements are eveer.

    Whether a species of grass should be called Aegilops incurva, Aegilops incurvata, ilopsovata may not be a matter that would stir many nonbotanists to passion, but it  be a sourceof very lively heat in the right quarters. The problem is that there are five thousand species ofgrass and many of them look awfully alike even to people who know grass. In sequene species have been found and  least twenty times, and there are hardly any, itappears, that haven’t been indepely identified at least twice. The two-volume Manual ofthe Grasses of the Uates devotes two hundred closely typeset pages t out allthe synonymies, as the biological world refers to its ient but quite onduplications. And that is just for the grasses of a single try.

    To deal with disagreements on the global stage, a body known as the IionalAssociation for Plant Taxonomy arbitrates oions of priority and duplication. At1To illustrate, humans are in the domain eucarya, in the kingdom animalia, in the phylum chordata, in thesubphylum vertebrata, in the class mammalia, in the order primates, in the family hominidae, in the genus homo,in the species sapiens. (The vention, Im informed, is to italicize genus and species names, but not those ofhigher divisions.) Some taxonomists employ further subdivisions: tribe, suborder, infraorder, parvorder, andmore.

    intervals it hands down decrees, declaring that Zauseria californica (a on plant inrock gardens) is to be known heh as Epilobium um or that Aglaothamniontenuissimum may now be regarded as specific with Aglaothamnion byssoides, but notwithAglaothamnion pseudobyssoides. Normally these are small matters of tidying up thatattract little notice, but wheou beloved garden plants, as they sometimes do,shrieks of e iably follow. Ie 1980s the on chrysanthemum wasbanished (on apparently sound stific principles) from the genus of the same name andrelegated to the paratively drab and undesirable world of the genus Dendranthema.

    Chrysanthemum breeders are a proud and numerous lot, and they protested to the real ifimprobable-sounding ittee oophyta. (There are also ittees forPteridophyta, Bryophyta, and Fungi, among others, all rep to aive called theRapporteur-Général; this is truly an institution to cherish.) Although the rules of nomenclatureare supposed to be rigidly applied, botanists are not indifferent to se, and in 1995 thedecision was reversed. Similar adjudications have saved petunias, euonymus, and a popularspecies of amaryllis from demotion, but not many species of geraniums, whie yearsago were transferred, amid howls, to the genus Pelargonium. The disputes are eaininglysurveyed in Charles Elliott’s The Potting-Shed Papers.

    Disputes and res of much the same type  be found in all the other realms of theliving, so keeping an overall tally is not nearly as straightforward a matter as you mightsuppose. In sequehe rather amazing fact is that we don’t have the fai idea—“noteven to the  order of magnitude,” in the words of Edward O. Wilson—of the number ofthings that live on our pla. Estimates range from 3 million to 200 million. Moreextraordinary still, acc to a report in the Eist, as much as 97 pert of theworld’s plant and animal species may still await discovery.

    Of the anisms that we do know about, more than 99 in 100 are only sketchilydescribed—“a stifiame, a handful of spes in a museum, and a few scraps ofdescription in stific journals” is how Wilson describes the state of our knowledge. In TheDiversity of Life, he estimated the number of known species of all types—plants, is,microbes, algae, everything—at 1.4 million, but added that that was just a guess. Otherauthorities have put the number of known species slightly higher, at around 1.5 million to 1.8million, but there is ral registry of these things, so o cheumbers. In short,the remarkable position we find ourselves in is that we don’t actually know what we actuallyknow.

    In principle you ought to be able to go to experts in each area of specialization, ask howmany species there are in their fields, then add the totals. Many people have in fact done so.

    The problem i<u></u>s that seldom do any two e up with matg figures. Some sources put thenumber of known types of fungi at 70,000, others at 100,000—nearly half as many again. You find fident assertions that the number of described earthworm species is 4,000 andequally fident assertions that the figure is 12,000. For is, the numbers run from750,000 to 950,000 species. These are, you uand, supposedly the known number ofspecies. For plants, the only accepted numbers range from 248,000 to 265,000. Thatmay not seem too vast a discrepancy, but it’s more thay times the number of flplants in the whole of North America.

    Putting things in order is not the easiest of tasks. In the early 1960s,  Groves of theAustralian National Uy began a systematic survey of the 250-plus known species ofprimate. Ofte turned out that the same species had been described more than onetimes several times—without any of the discoverers realizing that they were dealing withan animal that was already known to sce. It took Groves four decades to untangleeverything, and that was with a paratively small group of easily distinguished, generallynontroversial creatures. Goodness knows what the results would be if aempted asimilar exercise with the pla’s estimated 20,000 types of lis, 50,000 species ofmollusk, or 400,000-plus beetles.

    What is certain is that there is a great deal of life out there, though the actual quantities arenecessarily estimates based orapolations—sometimes exceedingly exparapolations. In a well-known exercise in the 1980s, Terry Erwin of the SmithsonianInstitution saturated a stand of een rain forest trees in Panama with an iicide fog,then collected everything that fell into his s from the opy. Among his haul (actuallyhauls, since he repeated the experiment seasonally to make sure he caught migrant species)were 1,200 types of beetle. Based on the distribution of beetles elsewhere, the number ofother tree species in the forest, the number of forests in the world, the number of other iypes, and so on up a long  of variables, he estimated a figure of 30 million species ofis for the entire pla—a figure he later said was too servative. Others using thesame or similar data have e up with figures of 13 million, 80 million, or 100 millioypes, underlining the clusion that however carefully arrived at, such figuresiably owe at least as much to supposition as to sce.

    Acc to the Wall Street Journal, the world has “about 10,000 active taxonomists”—not a great number when you sider how much there is to be recorded. But, the Journaladds, because of the cost (about $2,000 per species) and paperwork, only about fifteenthousand new species of all types are logged per year.

    “It’s not a biodiversity crisis, it’s a taxonomist crisis!” barks Koen Maes, Belgian-bornhead of iebrates at the Kenyan National Museum in Nairobi, whom I met briefly on avisit to the try iumn of 2002. There were no specialized taxonomists in thewhole of Africa, he told me. “There was one in the Ivory Coast, but I think he has retired,” hesaid. It takes eight to ten years to train a taxonomist, but none are ing along in Africa.

    “They are the real fossils,” Maes added. He himself was to be let go at the end of the year, hesaid. After seven years in Kenya, his tract was not being renewed. “No funds,” Maesexplained.

    Writing in the journal Nature last year, the British biologist G. H. Godfray hat thereis a ic “lack of prestige and resources” for taxonomists everywhere. In sequence,“many species are being described poorly in isolated publications, with no attempt to relate aaxon2to existing species and classifications.” Moreover, much of taxonomists’ time istaken up not with describing new species but simply with s out old ones. Many,acc to Godfray, “spend most of their career trying to interpret the work of eenth-tury systematicists: destrug their often ie published descriptions orsc the world’s museums for type material that is often in very poor dition.” Godfrayparticularly stresses the absence of attention being paid to the systematizing possibilities ofthe I. The fact is that taxonomy by and large is still quaintly wedded to paper.

    2The formal word for a zoological category, such as phylum enus. The plural is taxa.

    In an attempt to haul things into the me, in 2001 Kevin Kelly, cofounder of Wiredmagazine, launched aerprise called the All Species Foundation with the aim of findingevery living anism and rec it on a database. The cost of su exercise has beeimated at anywhere from $2 billion to as much as $50 billion. As of the spring of 2002, thefoundation had just $1.2 million in funds and four full-time employees. If, as the numberssuggest, erhaps 100 million species of is yet to find, and if our rates ofdiscovery ti the present pace, we should have a definitive total for is in a littleover fifteen thousand years. The rest of the animal kingdom may take a little longer.

    So why do we know as little as we do? There are nearly as many reasons as there areanimals left to t, but here are a few of the principal causes:

    Most living things are small and easily overlooked.In practical terms, this is not always abad thing. You might not slumber quite so tentedly if you were aware that your mattress ishome to perhaps two million microscopic mites, whie out in the wee hours to sup onyour sebaceous oils a on all those lovely, chy flakes of skin that you shed as youdoze and toss. Your pillow alone may be home to forty thousand of them. (To them your headis just one large oily bon-bon.) And don’t think a  pillowcase will make a differeosomething on the scale of bed mites, the weave of the tightest human fabric looks like ship’srigging. Indeed, if your pillow is six years old—which is apparently about the average age fora pillow—it has beeimated that oh of its weight will be made up of “sloughedskin, living mites, dead mites and mite dung,” to quote the man who did the measuring, Dr.

    John Maunder of the British Medical Entomology ter. (But at least they areyour mites.

    Think of what you snuggle up with each time you climb into a motel bed.)3These mites havebeen with us siime immemorial, but they weren’t discovered until 1965.

    If creatures as intimately associated with us as bed mites escaped our notitil the age ofcolor television, it’s hardly surprising that most of the rest of the small-scale world is barelyknown to us. Go out into a woods—any woods at all—bend down and scoop up a handful ofsoil, and you will be holding up to 10 billion bacteria, most of them unknown to sce. Yoursample will also tain perhaps a million plump yeasts, some 200,000 hairy little fungiknown as molds, perhaps 10,000 protozoans (of which the most familiar is the amoeba), andassorted rotifers, flatworms, roundworms, and other microscopic creatures known collectivelyas cryptozoa. A large portion of these will also be unknown.

    The most prehensive handbook of micranisms, Bergey’s Manual of SystematicBacteriology, lists about 4,000 types of bacteria. In the 1980s, a pair of Nian stists,Jostein Goks?yr and Vigdis Torsvik, collected a gram of random soil from a beech forest heir lab in<s>?</s> Bergen and carefully analyzed its bacterial tent. They found that this singlesmall sample tained between 4,000 and 5,000 separate bacterial species, more than in thewhole of Bergey’s Manual. They then traveled to a coastal location a few miles away,scooped up anram of earth, and found that it tained 4,000 to 5,000 other species. AsEdward O. Wilson observes: “If over 9,000 microbial types exist in two pinches of substratefrom two localities in Norway, how many more await discovery in other, radically differenthabitats?” Well, acc to oimate, it could be as high as 400 million.

    3We are actually getting worse at some matters of hygiene. Dr. Maunder believes that the move toward low-temperature washing mae detergents has enced bugs to proliferate. As he puts it: &quot;If you wash lousyclothing at low temperatures, all you get is er lice.&quot;We don’t look in the right places. In The Diversity of Life, Wilson describes how oanist spent a few days tramping around teares of jungle in Borneo and discovered athousand new species of fl plant—more than are found in the whole of NorthAmerica. The plants weren’t hard to find. It’s just that no one had looked there before. KoenMaes of the Kenyan National Museum told me that he went to one cloud forest, asmountaintop forests are known in Kenya, and in a half hour “of not particularly dedicatedlooking” found four new species of millipedes, three representing new genera, and one newspecies of tree. “Big tree,” he added, and shaped his arms as if about to dah a verylarge partner. Cloud forests are found oops of plateaus and have sometimes beenisolated for millions of years. “They provide the ideal climate for biology and they havehardly been studied,” he said.

    Overall, tropical rain forests cover only about 6 pert of Earth’s surface, but harbor morethan half of its animal life and about two-thirds of its fl plants, and most of this liferemains unknown to us because too few researchers spend time in them. Not ially,much of this could be quite valuable. At least 99 pert of fl plants have never beeed for their medial properties. Because they ’t flee from predators, plants have hadto trive chemical defenses, and so are particularly enriched in intriguing pounds. Evennow nearly a quarter of all prescribed medies are derived from just forty plants, withanother 16 pert ing from animals or microbes, so there is a serious risk with everyhectare of forest felled of losing medically vital possibilities. Using a method calledbinatorial chemistry, chemists  gee forty thousand pounds at a time in labs,but these products are random and not unonly useless, whereas any natural moleculewill have already passed what the Eist calls “the ultimate sing programme: overthree and a half billion years of evolution.”

    Looking for the unknown isn’t simply a matter of traveling to remote or distant places,however. In his book Life: An Unauthorised Biography, Richard Fortey notes how onea bacterium was found on the wall of a try pub “where men had urinated feions”—a discovery that would seem to involve rare amounts of lud devotion andpossibly some other quality not specified.

    There aren’t enough specialists.The stock of things to be found, examined, and recordedvery much outruns the supply of stists available to do it. Take the hardy and little-knanisms known as bdelloid rotifers. These are microscopiimals that  survive almostanything. When ditions are tough, they curl up into a pact shape, switch off theirmetabolism, and wait for better times. In this state, you  drop them into boiling water orfreeze them almost to absolute zero—that is the level where even atoms give up—and, whenthis torment has finished and they are returo a more pleasing enviro, they willuncurl and move on as if nothing has happened. So far, about 500 species have beeified(though other sources say 360), but nobody has any idea, eveely, how many there maybe altogether. For years almost all that was known about them was thanks to the work of adevoted amateur, a London clerical worker named David Bryce who studied them in his sparetime. They  be found all over the world, but you could have all the bdelloid rotifer expertsin the world to dinner and not have to borrow plates from the neighbors.

    Even something as important and ubiquitous as fungi—and fungi are both—attraparatively little notice. Fungi are everywhere and e in many forms—as mushrooms,molds, mildews, yeasts, and puffballs, to  a sampling—and they exist in volumesthat most of us little suspect. Gather together all the fungi found in a typical aeadowand you would have 2,500 pounds of the stuff. These are not marginal anisms. Withoutfungi there would be no potato blights, Dutch elm disease, jock itch, or athlete’s foot, but alsono yogurts or beers or cheeses. Altogether about 70,000 species of fungi have beeified,but it is thought the number could be as high as 1.8 million. A lot of mycologists work inindustry, making cheeses and yogurts and the like, so it is hard to say how many are activelyinvolved in research, but we  safely take it that there are more species of fungi to be foundthan there are people to find them.

    The world is a really big place.We have been gulled by the ease of air travel and otherforms of unication into thinking that the world is not all that big, but at ground level,where researchers must work, it is actually enormous—enormous enough to be full ofsurprises. The okapi, the  liviive of the giraffe, is now known to exist insubstantial numbers in the rain forests of Zaire—the total population is estimated at perhapsthirty thousas existence wasn’t even suspected until the tweh tury. The largeflightless New Zealand bird called the takahe had been presumed extinct for two hundredyears before being found living in a rugged area of the try’s South Island. In 1995 a teamof Frend British stists in Tibet, who were lost in a snowstorm in a remote valley,came across a breed of horse, called the Riwoche, that had previously been known only fromprehistoric cave drawings. The valley’s inhabitants were astoo learn that the horse wassidered a rarity in the wider world.

    Some  people  think  even  greater  surprises may await us. “A leading British ethno-biologist,” wrote the Eist in 1995, “thinks a megatherium, a sort of giant ground slothwhich may stand as high as a giraffe . . . may lurk in the fastnesses of the Amazon basin.”

    Perhaps signifitly, the ethnobiologist wasn’t named; perhaps even more signifitly,nothing more has been heard of him or his giant sloth. No one, however,  categorically saythat no such thing is there until every jungly glade has been iigated, and we are a longway from achieving that.

    But even if we groomed thousands of fieldworkers and dispatched them to the farthesters of the world, it would not be effort enough, for wherever life  be, it is. Life’sextraordinary fedity is amazing, even gratifying, but also problematic. To survey it all, youwould have to turn over every rock, sift through the litter on every forest floor, sieveunimaginable quantities of sand and dirt, climb into every forest opy, and devise muchmore effit ways to examihe seas. Even then you would overlook whole ecosystems. Inthe 1980s, spelunkers entered a deep cave in Romania that had been sealed off from theoutside world for a long but unknown period and found thirty-three species of is andother small creatures—spiders, tipedes, lice—all blind, colorless, ao sce.

    They were living off the microbes in the surface scum of pools, whi turn were feeding onhydrogen sulfide from hot springs.

    Our instinct may be to see the impossibility of trag everything down as frustrating,dispiriting, perhaps even appalling, but it  just as well be viewed as almost unbearablyexg. We live on a plahat has a more or less infinite capacity to surprise. Whatreasoning person could possibly want it any other way?

    What is nearly always most arresting in any ramble through the scattered disciplines ofmodern sce is realizing hoeople have been willing to devote lifetimes to themost sumptuously esoteries of inquiry. In one of his essays, Stephen Jay Gould notes howa hero of his named Henry Edward Crampto fifty years, from 1906 to his death in1956, quietly studying a genus of land snails in Polynesia called Partula. Over and over, yearafter year, Crampton measured to the ti degree—to eight decimal places—the whorls andard gentle curves of numberless Partula, piling the results into fastidiously detailedtables. A single line of text in a Crampton table could represent weeks of measurement andcalculation.

    Only slightly less devoted, aainly more ued, was Alfred C. Kinsey, whobecame famous for his studies of human sexuality in the 1940s and 1950s. But before hismind became filled with sex, so to speak, Kinsey was aomologist, and a dogged ohat. In one expedition lasting two years, he hiked 2,500 miles to assemble a colle of300,000 s. How many stings he collected along the way is not, alas, recorded.

    Something that had been puzzling me was the question of how you assured a  ofsuccession in these are fields. Clearly there ot be many institutions in the world thatrequire or are prepared to support specialists in barnacles or Pacifiails. As we parted at theNatural History Museum in London, I asked Richard Fortey how ssures that whenone persohere’s someone ready to take his place.

    He chuckled rather heartily at my é. “I’m afraid it’s not as if we have substitutessitting on the benewhere waiting to be called in to play. When a specialist retires or,even more unfortunately, dies, that  bring a stop to things in that field, sometimes for avery long while.”

    “And I suppose that’s why you value someone who spends forty-two years studying asingle species of plant, even if it doesn’t produything terribly new?”

    “Precisely,” he said, “precisely.” And he really seemed to mean it.

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